Criminal Justice and Behavior recent issues

Introduction to the Special Issue on Policing and Homeland Security

Shernock, S. K. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 10:11:55 PST

The Israeli Model for Policing Terrorism: Goals, Strategies, and Open Questions

Weisburd, D., Jonathan, T., Perry, S. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 10:11:55 PST

To date, there are few descriptions of possible policing models for responding to terrorism and enhancing homeland security. This article reviews the Israeli model for policing terrorism, presenting an initial description of its three broad tasks as defined by the Israeli police: first, the early prevention, interdiction, and treatment of sources of terrorism; second, the response activities once the attack has been launched; and, third, the response activities once the attack has occurred. These tasks are developed in the context of an overarching goal of allowing Israeli citizens to continue with their normal routines despite terrorist threats. The authors raise a series of questions that they view as being critical for developing a broader understanding of the potential benefits, as well as dangers, of general service police agencies taking a more significant role in counterterrorism and homeland security functions.

Policing Terrorism in Israel

Perliger, A., Hasisi, B., Pedahzur, A. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 10:11:55 PST

This article challenges the approach that supports the efficiency of the war model in combating terrorism and shows, by drawing on empirical support, the advantages of using the criminal justice model not only because of its response to the legal—moral issue but also because of its effectiveness. A conceptualization of the term policing terrorism is presented through a general model that defines the role of the police in combating terrorism within a democracy. By analyzing how this model is implemented in Israel, the article illustrates that police forces are preferable to military ones in three main realms: counterterrorism intelligence, thwarting of terrorist attacks, and restoration of civilian infrastructure after a terrorist attack.

Law Enforcement Training and the Domestic Far Right

Chermak, S. M., Freilich, J. D., Shemtob, Z. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 10:11:55 PST

This article examines issues related to training as it pertains to domestic terrorism in general and responding to far-right extremists in particular. First, it hightlights current training practices and training focused on the far right. Second, it details knowledge about the nature and extent of the threat posed by far-right extremists. Third, a review of the empirical research indicates that training could be enhanced if three key issues are emphasized: Future training should promote a better understanding of the contours of the far right; discuss the unique geographic, crime-incident, and structural characteristics of the far right; and describe the need to examine all ideologically motivated crimes, regardless of whether they are also defined as terrorist. The conclusion discusses how training could be enhanced by strategically integrating the existing knowledge base.

The Intelligence Fusion Process for State, Local, and Tribal Law Enforcement

Carter, D. L., Carter, J. G. — Wed, 11 Nov 2009 10:11:55 PST

Intelligence fusion centers have grown rapidly in the last few years as state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies have attempted to find the best way to share information about threats to their communities. The Department of Homeland Security and the Information Sharing Environment of the Office of the Director of National Intelligence embraced fusion centers as being an important mechanism to aid them in their missions to share terrorism information among law enforcement, the private sector, and the intelligence community. The development and management of fusion centers have received significant guidance from the Justice Department, via the Global Intelligence Working Group, by developing standards for structure and processes. Critics, however, are concerned that the centers have inadequate protections for privacy and civil rights. This article examines issues in the development of fusion centers and provides an examination of the support for and criticisms of such agencies.

List of Reviewers for Manuscripts Received in 2009

Wed, 11 Nov 2009 10:11:55 PST

Introduction to the Special Issue on Biosocial Criminology

DeLisi, M. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

DAT1 and 5HTT Are Associated With Pathological Criminal Behavior in a Nationally Representative Sample of Youth

Vaughn, M. G., DeLisi, M., Beaver, K. M., Wright, J. P. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

The study of serious, violent, and chronic offenders is a primary research area in criminology; however, its genetic underpinnings are relatively unknown. Based on genetically sensitive data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), this study empirically explored the genetic antecedents of chronic and dangerous criminal behavior. Controlling for age, gender, cognitive ability, and self-control, the models yielded some significant effects for the genetic polymorphisms dopamine transporter (DAT1) and serotonin transporter (5HTT), and these effects were conditioned by the delinquent peer network within which adolescents were situated—thereby suggesting a significant Gene x Environment interaction.

Low Resting Heart Rate and Antisocial Behavior: A Brief Review of Evidence and Preliminary Results From a New Test

Armstrong, T. A., Keller, S., Franklin, T. W., Macmillan, S. N. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

Despite a large body of research demonstrating a clear and consistent relationship between resting heart rate and antisocial behavior, little is understood about the relative influence on antisocial behavior of resting heart rate and other constructs central to criminological theories. Here, the authors offer an initial effort to bridge this gap in the literature by testing the relationship between resting heart rate and a measure of antisocial behavior net of attachment to parents, self-control, peer delinquency, and potential physiological confounds. Results from ANOVA show that those with low resting heart rates have significantly higher rates of severe antisocial behavior and aggressive antisocial behavior net of physiological confounds. Results from multivariate regression models show that low resting heart rate has a statistically significant relationship with severe antisocial behavior and aggressive behavior in models controlling for attachment to parents, self-control, peer delinquency, and physiological confounds.

Disrupted Effective Connectivity Between the Medial Frontal Cortex and the Caudate in Adolescent Boys With Externalizing Behavior Disorders

Shannon, K. E., Sauder, C., Beauchaine, T. P., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

Studies addressing the neural correlates of criminal behavior have focused primarily on the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. However, few studies have examined dopaminergic inputs to these or other brain regions, despite the fact that central dopamine (DA) dysfunction is associated with both trait impulsivity and novelty seeking. Given long-standing associations between both of these personality traits and externalizing psychopathology, the authors examined effective connectivity between the caudate nucleus and the anterior cingulate cortex, two areas that rely on DA input to facilitate associative learning and goal directed behavior. Dysfunction in top-down and bottom-up processing within this dopaminergically mediated frontostriatal circuit may be an important biological vulnerability that increases one’s likelihood of engaging in delinquent and criminal behavior. When compared with controls, reduced effective connectivity between these regions among adolescents with externalizing psychopathology was found, suggesting deficiencies in frontostriatal circuitry.

Evidence of Genetic and Environmental Effects On the Development of Low Self-Control

Beaver, K. M., Ratchford, M., Ferguson, C. J. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

A body of research has revealed that low self-control is one of the strongest and most consistent predictors of antisocial behaviors. As a result, there is great interest in identifying the factors that cause variation in levels of self-control. Much of this work has centered on identifying the effects that social factors, such as parental socialization, have on self-control. More recently, however, there has been research revealing that levels of self-control are scripted by genetic factors as well as environmental factors. The current study examines whether a polymorphism (5HTTLPR) in the serotonin transporter gene and exposure to delinquent peers are associated with levels of self-control. Analysis of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health indicates that the 5HTTLPR polymorphism interacted with a measure of delinquent peer affiliation to predict variation in self-control during adolescence and adulthood. Implications for theories of crime causation are discussed.

Structural Neuroimaging and the Antisocial Brain: Main Findings and Methodological Challenges

Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

A series of neuroimaging studies have reported structural differences in several subcortical and frontal systems in individuals with stable antisocial behavior (sASB). Specifically, differences have been observed in the prefrontal and temporal cortices (e.g., amygdala and hippocampus). However, the sASB population is typically characterized by co-occurring hyperactivity— inattention symptoms and low cognitive ability. These nuisance variables are likely to complicate the interpretation of findings regarding structural differences associated with sASB. The way in which each study deals with these variables influences the conclusions that can be drawn about the brain structure and function of children and adults with sASB. This article briefly reviews the extant literature in this field before considering two approaches that may be used to deal with comorbidities conceptualized as nuisance variables--namely, the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and the matched-group design. Then, the authors illustrate, with their own data, checks that may be performed to ensure the validity of results using ANCOVA.

All in the Family: Gene x Environment Interaction Between DRD2 and Criminal Father Is Associated With Five Antisocial Phenotypes

DeLisi, M., Beaver, K. M., Vaughn, M. G., Wright, J. P. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

A range of Gene x Environment interactions is associated with antisocial phenotypes, and the evidence is clear that the etiology of antisocial behavior is strongly heritable and that environmental liabilities are important. However, the precise ways that genetic and environmental pathogens interact to predict antisocial behavior are underspecified. The present study shows that the interaction between a polymorphism in a dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) and a criminal father predicts five antisocial phenotypes among African American females (n = 232) in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Genetic risk (as measured by the A1 allele) and a criminal father interacted to predict serious and violent delinquency at Wave 1, serious and violent delinquency at Wave 2, and number of police contacts. The current investigation represents the first study to show Gene x Environment interactions in the prediction of antisocial phenotypes using criminal justice system status as an environmental pathogen.

Phenotypic and Aetiological Associations Between Psychopathic Tendencies, Autistic Traits, and Emotion Attribution

Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

Some behavioural overlap exists between psychopathic tendencies and autistic traits, and both phenotypes are thought to be associated with problems in empathy. However, the broad behavioural profiles and the cognitive-affective deficits associated with the two conditions are at least partly separable. The main aim of this study was to assess the extent to which the aetiology of psychopathic tendencies is independent of autistic traits. A secondary aim was to study the aetiology of emotion attribution ability and its association with psychopathic tendencies and autistic traits. Based on data from a sample of 642 twin pairs, the genetic and nonshared environmental influences related to psychopathic tendencies were largely unique to each phenotype. Common environmental influences between psychopathic tendencies and autistic traits overlapped. Poorer emotion attribution ability was associated with increased psychopathic tendencies and autistic traits, and these associations were mainly explained by common genetic factors.

Executive Functioning and Risky Decision Making in Young Male Offenders

Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

Executive functioning (EF) deficits have been implicated in antisocial behavior. EF constitutes a broad selection of functions, and it is yet to be determined what specific aspects of EF are associated with antisocial behavior. This study examines IQ, EF, and related decision-making processes in young males involved with the criminal justice system and their age-matched male controls. The Risky Choice Task (RCT), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and tests taken from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) assessing spatial working memory, planning, and set-shifting ability were administered. Young offenders showed lower estimated IQ scores and perseveration of responding, as indicated by performance on the WCST. There were also specific EF impairments, such as problems in working memory and planning (CANTAB). Finally, young offenders showed more risky decision-making than controls did, particularly after a small win. The results on the RCT suggest altered reward mechanisms in young offenders, whereas the findings also support the notion of EF difficulties related to dorsolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortex functioning. The implications of these findings for interventions with young offenders are discussed.

What Biosocial Criminology Offers Criminology

Wright, J. P., Boisvert, D. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

Criminology has historically maligned biological perspectives despite the scientific rigor of the biological sciences. In recent years, however, a growing number of criminologists are incorporating biological, neurological, genetic, and neuropsychological constructs along with environmental measures into their research. This review explores the relevance of biosocial criminology to the parent discipline of criminology by focusing on its scientific discovery, advanced methodologies, increased theoretical specificity, acknowledgement and illumination of individual differences, and promise of effective policy based on knowledge of human development. In sum, biosocial criminology is a potential fruitful paradigm shift in the scientific study of crime.

The Criminology of the Amygdala

DeLisi, M., Umphress, Z. R., Vaughn, M. G. — Mon, 19 Oct 2009 10:53:56 PDT

A central part of the brain’s limbic system, the amygdala is crucial for emotional learning, aversive conditioning, and response to fear and other emotions. Although the amygdala is a vibrant area of study in the neurosciences, it is virtually ignored in criminology. Here, we review the anatomical location, connectivity, and functions of the amygdala, explore its role in James Blair and colleagues’ recently advanced theory of psychopathy, explicate amygdala abnormalities in diverse populations, and explore genetics research relating to amygdala functioning. Because of its role in the regulation of fear and other emotional memory and response, the amygdala is importantly related to psychopathy; callous-unemotional traits; and the vibrant, neuroscience-based investigations of the etiology of antisocial behavior.

Assessment of Reoffense Risk in Adolescents Who Have Committed Sexual Offenses: Predictive Validity of the ERASOR, PCL:YV, YLS/CMI, and Static-99

Viljoen, J. L., Elkovitch, N., Scalora, M. J., Ullman, D. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

Clinicians are often asked to assess the likelihood that an adolescent who has committed a sexual offense will reoffend. However, there is limited research on the predictive validity of available assessment tools. To help address this gap, this study examined the ability of the Estimate of Risk of Adolescent Sexual Offense Recidivism (ERASOR), the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI), the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV), and the Static-99 to predict reoffending in a sample of 193 adolescents. Youth were followed for an average of 7.24 years after discharge from a residential sex offender treatment program. Although none of the instruments significantly predicted detected cases of sexual reoffending, ERASOR’s structured professional judgments nearly reached significance (p = .069). Both the YLS/CMI and the PCL:YV predicted nonsexual violence, any violence, and any offending; however, the YLS/CMI demonstrated incremental validity over the PCL:YV. Although the Static-99 has considerable support with adult sex offenders, it did not predict sexual or general reoffending in the present sample of adolescents.

A Latent Class Typology of Juvenile Victims and Exploration of Risk Factors and Outcomes of Victimization

Reid, J. A., Sullivan, C. J. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

Although juveniles are known to experience relatively high levels of violence and abuse, study of their victimization is underdeveloped. Using data from a nationally representative survey of 1,000 youth, this study used latent class analysis to construct a typology of juvenile victims and latent class regression to explore previously proposed correlates to juvenile victimization based on lifestyle or routine activity theory of victimization. An analytically derived typology was identified with three classes: minimally victimized youth, victims of bullying, and universally victimized youth. Parental supervision, school violence, family adversity, and age were found to significantly affect the placement of youth into the various classes. Implications for juvenile justice and other service providers include the importance of attending to the harmful effects of peer victimizations and providing trauma-recovery treatment.

Assessing Criminal Thinking in Male Sex Offenders With the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles

Walters, G. D., Deming, A., Elliott, W. N. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

A sample of 543 male inmates undergoing sex offender treatment completed the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS). As predicted, the PICTS General Criminal Thinking (GCT), Proactive (P), and Reactive (R) scores correlated with sexual risk as measured by the total score on the Static-99. However, only the GCT and P scores correlated with sentence length, and none of the PICTS scores successfully discriminated between a current offense of child molestation and a current offense of adult rape/sexual assault. A confirmatory factor analysis verified previous factor analyses of the PICTS conducted on nonsex offenders whereby the PICTS thinking style scales displayed significantly better fit with a two-factor (proactive, reactive) than with a one-factor (general criminal thinking) model. These results lend preliminary support to the notion that criminal thinking in general and proactive/instrumental criminal thinking in particular have something to offer sex offender assessment.

Beyond Supermax Administrative Segregation: Mississippi's Experience Rethinking Prison Classification and Creating Alternative Mental Health Programs

Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

Litigation in Mississippi required the Department of Corrections to ameliorate substandard conditions at the supermaximum Unit 32 of Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman, remove prisoners with serious mental illness from administrative segregation and provide them with adequate treatment, and reexamine the entire classification system. Pursuant to two federal consent decrees, the Department of Corrections greatly reduced the population in administrative segregation and established a step-down mental health treatment unit for the prisoners excluded from administrative segregation. This article describes and discusses not only the process of enacting the changes but also the outcomes, including the large reductions in rates of misconduct, violence, and use of force.

Understanding Male Sexual Offending: A Comparison of General and Specialist Theories

Harris, D. A., Mazerolle, P., Knight, R. A. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

Previous research has explored whether criminological theories can account for the apparently specialized behaviors of sexual offenders. One perspective proposes that criminals are versatile, engaging in an array of antisocial behaviors. The alternative perspective, more common in sexual offending research, is that sexual offenders (especially child molesters) engage in sexual offenses exclusively or predominantly. This study examined 374 male sexual offenders referred for civil commitment. Offenders were compared by crime classification and level of specialization and were assessed on a selection of variables that measured general criminality and sexual deviance. Specialization level was a stronger group discriminator than offender classification. Versatile offenders were significantly more likely than specialist offenders to present with generic antisocial behaviors predicted by traditional criminology. Specialist offenders reported more indicators of sexual deviance than versatile offenders. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Exploring the Link Between Low Self-Control and Violent Victimization Trajectories in Adolescents

Higgins, G. E., Jennings, W. G., Tewksbury, R., Gibson, C. L. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

Although the relationship between Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory and crime is well known in the literature, much less research has addressed the possible link of low self-control and violent victimization. Drawing from the limited research in this area, the authors explore the trajectories of low self-control and violent victimization among a sample of adolescents from the Gang Resistance Education and Training data. The results appear to suggest that self-control is largely stable and that self-control trajectories are linked to violent victimization trajectories over time. Study limitations and suggestions for future research are also discussed.

The Fire Behind the Smoke: A Reply to Snook and Colleagues

Dern, H., Dern, C., Horn, A., Horn, U. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

On the Need for Scientific Experimentation in the Criminal Profiling Field: A Reply to Dern and Colleagues

Snook, B., Taylor, P. J., Gendreau, P., Bennell, C. — Tue, 22 Sep 2009 16:53:41 PDT

The Principles of Effective Correctional Treatment Also Apply To Sexual Offenders: A Meta-Analysis

Hanson, R. K., Bourgon, G., Helmus, L., Hodgson, S. — Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:36:47 PDT

The effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders remains controversial, even though it is widely agreed that certain forms of human service interventions reduce the recidivism rates of general offenders. The current review examined whether the principles associated with effective treatments for general offenders (risk-need-responsivity; RNR) also apply to sexual offender treatment. Based on a meta-analysis of 23 recidivism outcome studies meeting basic criteria for study quality, the unweighted sexual and general recidivism rates for the treated sexual offenders were lower than the rates observed for the comparison groups (10.9%, n = 3,121 vs. 19.2%, n = 3,625 for sexual recidivism; 31.8%, n = 1,979 vs. 48.3%, n = 2,822 for any recidivism). Programs that adhered to the RNR principles showed the largest reductions in sexual and general recidivism. Given the consistency of the current findings with the general offender rehabilitation literature, the authors believe that the RNR principles should be a major consideration in the design and implementation of treatment programs for sexual offenders.

Is Prison Sexual Offending Indicative of Community Risk?

Heil, P., Harrison, L., English, K., Ahlmeyer, S. — Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:36:47 PDT

This study examines whether prison sexual offending behaviors are predictive of violence upon release. Recidivism rates for four groups of male sex offenders were compared: (a) offenders convicted of community sex crimes, (b) community sex offenders who were convicted under non-sex-crime charges, (c) offenders known only to commit sexually abusive misconduct in prison, and (d) offenders with both community and prison sex offenses. The findings reveal that prison sex offenders are significantly more likely to be arrested for violent offenses upon release. They pose a similar risk to convicted sex offenders on arrests for sexual offenses; however, the average time to arrest was much shorter for prison sex offenders. Using nontraditional data sources (e.g., Accurint, the Colorado and National Sex Offender Registries) considerably increased the known recidivism rate. Implications for prevention and treatment are discussed.

Allocation to Offending Behavior Programs in the English and Welsh Probation Service

Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:36:47 PDT

The Probation Service of England and Wales delivers three offending behavior programs designed for offenders who have committed any offense. One of the selection criteria for these programs states that offenders should have a medium-high risk of reoffending rather than low or very high risk. This article examines the appropriateness of offender allocation by risk level to these three programs in the Probation Service. There was significant variation in allocation performance by Probation Area and program. Appropriateness of allocation was associated with program completion. Very high—risk offenders were more likely to not start a program that they had been allocated to and more likely to not complete a program once they had started. Appropriateness of allocation also affected reconviction independently of program completion status.

Witness Factors and Their Influence on Jurors' Perceptions and Verdicts

Pozzulo, J. D., Dempsey, J. L. — Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:36:47 PDT

Mock jurors (N = 363) read a mock trial transcript that examined the influence of age of witness (child vs. adult), the witness’s relationship to the crime (bystander vs. victim), and the type of eyewitness identification decision (positive vs. foil vs. nonidentification) on their perception of the witness’s accuracy for other crime details, credibility, and verdict. The offender’s physical description was perceived as more accurate with a positive versus foil identification. The perceived accuracy of the offender’s description did not vary with a positive identification versus nonidentification. Child victims were perceived as credible as adult victims, but a child as a bystander was perceived as less credible than an adult as a bystander. More guilty verdicts were rendered with a positive identification versus a foil identification or a nonidentification. Guilty verdicts were made at a comparable rate when the witness made a foil identification or a nonidentification.

Reinforcing Abstinence and Treatment Participation Among Offenders in a Drug Diversion Program: Are Vouchers Effective?

Hall, E. A., Prendergast, M. L., Roll, J. M., Warda, U. — Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:36:47 PDT

This study assessed a 26-week voucher-based intervention to reinforce abstinence and participation in treatment-related activities among substance-abusing offenders court referred to outpatient treatment under drug diversion legislation (California’s Substance Abuse and Crime Prevention Act). Standard treatment consisted of criminal justice supervision and an evidence-based model for treating stimulant abuse. Participants were randomly assigned to four groups, standard treatment (ST) only, ST plus vouchers for testing negative, ST plus vouchers for performing treatment plan activities, and ST plus vouchers for testing negative and/or performing treatment plan activities. Results indicate that voucher-based reinforcement of negative urines and of treatment plan tasks (using a flat reinforcement schedule) showed no statistically significant effects on measures of retention or drug use relative to the standard treatment protocol. It is likely that punishment and reinforcement operating within the criminal justice context had a stronger impact on participants’ treatment retention and drug use than the relatively low-value vouchers awarded as part of the treatment protocol.

Lead Exposure and Its Implications for Criminological Theory

Narag, R. E., Pizarro, J., Gibbs, C. — Fri, 31 Jul 2009 12:36:47 PDT

This article summarizes what is known about the association between lead exposure and human behavior and discusses the implications for criminology. It provides background information about lead sources and measurement and traces the various impacts of lead exposure on humans, including cognition and behavior. It posits that the link between lead exposure, aggression, delinquency, and crime is consistent with the traditional individual-level psychological based and aggregate-level sociological based theories that explain delinquent and criminal behavior and that differential lead exposure and treatment by neighborhood is congruent with theories of social disadvantage. It concludes by enumerating the unsettled debates about the impact of lead exposure and by outlining the profitable avenues for future criminological research.